“Comprehension to What End?” by Stephanie Harvey

Stephanie Harvey, one of the authors of Strategies that Work, is also a contributor for another book I am reading, Comprehension Moving Forward.  This book is a compilation of chapters written by various experts in the field of reading education, including Ellin Oliver Keene, Susan Zimmerman, Anne Goudvis and Cris Tovani.  Each chapter addresses the question, “What’s the next step in reading comprehension instruction?”  Research in reading instruction began in the 80’s and has truly taken off in the last 10-15 years, as the No Child Left Behind Act pushed reading instruction to the forefront.  Today there are more teachers who are educated and skilled at reading strategy instruction than ever before, so it seems natural to ask what the next step should be.

Harvey’s chapter is entitled, “Comprehension to What End?” and it provides insights into what teachers should do once they have taught comprehension strategies to their students.  She emphasizes that process (how students learn) and content (what they learn) are both important.  Comprehension strategies are a means to an end – not an end in themselves.  She quipped, “we don’t teach students to think so they can ponder their belly buttons” (p. 115).  As a reading and English teacher, I could not agree more that comprehension strategies should be tools for making content more accessible.  My expertise is in utilizing comprehension strategies to help make the complex texts that are required within our literature textbooks easier for students to read and understand.  The model lesson on The Pit and the Pendulum that I shared recently is a good example of that.  A lesson that I created for my English IV classes to help them tackle Sir Gawain and the Green Knight is another example:

Harvey went on to describe the “Comprehension Continuum” processes that run from the most basic to the most sophisticated of responses to text.  Ideally students should be taken from one end of the continuum to the other over time. 

The most basic comprehension process is answering literal questions.  This is the least sophisticated level of comprehension because it does not necessarily expand thinking or guarantee comprehension.  I use these types of questions as checkpoints throughout a lesson to make sure that students are at least paying attention.  I give immediate feedback on these types of questions so that misconceptions can be redirected before moving on with a reading.  They are a means to an end – not the end in themselves.

Retelling is the next process on the continuum.  Unlike literal questions, retelling allows students to put thoughts into their own words.  Retelling can improve comprehension because it enables students to “think their way through a text” (p. 120).  Although retelling can be useful, it still does not reflect deep understanding of a text. 

Merging thinking with content is the third process on the continuum, but the first that leads to real comprehension.  This is what is taking place when students react genuinely with a text, when they stop and ask questions, clarify, make a connection or an inference.  That was the purpose of the shallow coding graphic organizer that I included in the Sir Gawain and the Green Knight lesson, as well as the written response questions at the end of the lesson. 

The next process on the continuum is acquiring knowledge.  According to Harvey, “Active learners turn information into knowledge by merging their thinking with the content” (p. 122).  After a teacher models how to locate information from texts, students should be able to do so in order to investigate topics and gather information to answer their questions.  This is what Cris Tovani calls the “catch and release” method (p. 132).  When students are able to investigate interesting topics they will be truly engaged in the learning process. 

The final process is for students to actively use knowledge.  The purpose of learning is not to pass a quiz; the purpose is to use knowledge to incorporate it into our thinking and apply it in day-to-day life.  We hope that knowledge will sometimes even inspire our students to make a difference or take action in some way.

The final two processes are what I had in mind as I revised the required research project for this quarter and turned it into a true I-search project.  Students are provided with guidance as they investigate careers of interest and learn the steps it will take to achieve their chosen career.  The I-search paper allows for constant reflection throughout the research process.  Below are some of the documents that I have created to implement this project.

The following document was created collaboratively with my English class.  I wanted them to know why they were looking for this information, so I asked them, "What sort of facts do you need to know about a college that you are considering?".  This list is what they came up with, and they were able to use this form to record details from their research.

Strategies that Work - Chapter 9

Chapter 9 in Strategies that Work covers inferring and visualizing because these are closely related skills.  In order to visualize, one must make inferences using details from the text.  Inference is involved in many reading skills including making predictions, using context clues, interpreting figurative language and drawing conclusions.

Harvey and Goudvis point out that visualizing personalizes a text.  When we create images in our minds of a book’s characters and setting we connect more deeply with a text.  When the movie version of a book is released, readers are often disappointed because the actors do not resemble the characters that had been visualized.  Discussing the disconnection between books and movies is a good way to begin a discussion about visualization with students. 

Selected Strategies for Visualization

Visualizing with Wordless Picture Books

It may seem unnecessary to visualize with a picture book, especially one without text, but this can actually be an opportunity.  With wordless picture books we can combine the visuals that are provided with mental visualizations to fill in the gaps with details that are not provided.  This may be a good way to introduce the skill of visualizing since the pictures that are provided can ease readers into creating their own mental images.

Visualizing in Nonfiction: Making Comparisons

Some teachers have more trouble implementing visualization with nonfiction texts.  One way to do so is by providing students with comparisons to help them visualize unfamiliar images.  An example is explaining to students that a Tyrannosaurus tooth is the size of a banana.  Since students can visualize a banana, they can then associate the image of a banana with that of the new concept, a Tyrannosaurus tooth.

Visualizing in Reading, Showing Not Telling in Writing

Harvey and Goudvis recommend a series of adult trade books about the history of baseball, particularly the book Shadow Ball: The History of the Negro Leagues to show students how imagery and the use of vivid nouns and verbs can bring a selection to life.  This text helps students practice visualization and serves as an excellent model for student writing.  They recommend reading an excerpt from the book aloud to the class as students close their eyes and visualize.  Afterwards ask them to identify the specific details that help bring the text to life.  Encourage students to use similar word choices when they write.

Selected Strategies for Inferring

Inferring the Meaning of Unfamiliar Words

Students should learn that inferential thinking is one of the quickest and most effective ways to reach understanding of unknown words.  Readers must consider their background knowledge and gather clues from the text to unlock the meaning of new words.  One teacher created a four column chart that helps students go through the steps of determining meaning with new vocabulary.  This is an example:

Word	Inferred Meaning	Clues	Sentence

Model use of the chart through think-alouds, providing students with both visual and auditory explanations.  Over time students will be able to use the chart to interpret word meanings while reading independently.

Inferring with Text Clues

The following formula helps students merge their background knowledge with clues from the text to make reasonable inferences:

BK + TC = I (or Background Knowledge + Text Clues = Inference)

The authors recommend a book called Tight Times by Barbara Shook Hazen for introducing the inference formula because it contains scenarios about which most students have background knowledge and plot elements that require inferring.

Recognizing Plot and Inferring Themes

Harvey and Goudvis suggest teaching students to recognize plot and theme by first explaining the difference between them.  Theme is the underlying message or lesson of a story, while the plot consists of the events that carry that message along.  Since themes are rarely stated within a story, they require inferring.

Use two-column notes like the following to facilitate the process of recognizing themes.  This chart will also help when students are asked to write about themes and provide textual evidence to support their assertions.

Evidence from the Text (words, pictures, ideas)	Themes

To reinforce the importance of themes throughout the year create a “theme board” for the class.  Add the theme of each selection classes read and discuss whenever texts have the same theme.

Visualizing and Inferring to Understand Information

Content-area classes, such as science or social studies, often have to read textbooks to gather information.  Explicit instruction in how to read these textbooks is critical (and telling students to read the chapters and answer the questions will not suffice).  When reading textbooks or other informational text, have students jot down notes on a two-column chart like the following:

Facts (Something We Can See and Observe)	Inferences (Interpretation)

Model how to fill out this chart with the class and encourage students to visualize as they read.  When students describe their visuals, they often include their own inferences.  Point out inferences and add them to the chart.  Filling out this graphic organizer during reading will help students to understand what they read and merge facts with their own thoughts in order to interpret and process information. 

Strategies That Work Ch. 8 - Questioning

Asking questions while reading is important because questions stimulate our minds and give us a reason to read more deeply.  Harvey and Goudvis (2007) explain, “Human beings are driven to find answers and make sense of the world” (p. 109).  Students need to be told that all good readers ask questions.  When we ask questions and look for the answers, we are monitoring our comprehension.  It is important for developing readers to interact with the text to construct meaning.  Chapter 8 of Strategies that Work offered a variety of methods for enhancing the questioning process during reading.

Share Questions – The first suggestion was simply to show students that teachers ask questions while they read.  This helps show them that all readers can use this strategy to enhance their comprehension, not just struggling readers

The More We Learn – Keep an “I learned / I wonder” chart as students read nonfiction to learn more about a subject.  This prepares students for more independent research later on.

Some Questions Are Answered, Others Are Not – Record questions on a chart during reading.  After reading, code those that were answered explicitly in the text with an “A”.  The unanswered questions are often the most intriguing and will spark the most interesting conversations.  The next step is to categorize the unanswered questions.  Categories might include:

• Questions that are answered in the text – A
• Questions that are answered from someone’s background knowledge - BK
• Questions whose answers can be inferred from the text – I
• Questions that can be answered by further discussion – D
• Questions that require further research to be answered – RS
• Questions that signaled confusion – Huh? Or C

(p. 113)

Gathering Information Through Questioning – Refer to students’ nonfiction notebooks as “wonder books”, and have students use these notebooks to list questions that occur to them as they read.  These questions can then be used as the basis for further investigation.  Students can organize their notebooks in different ways and share them with their classmates to explore different options.

Thick and Thin Questions – Thick questions address large, universal concepts and often begin with “why” or “how” or address major concepts such as “What is photosynthesis?”.  These types of questions often require further research and discussion.  Thin questions clarify confusion or point out specific details.  Students use larger, 3 x 3 sticky notes to record “thick” questions, while thinner, flag notecards can be used for “thin” questions.  These visual reminders make it easier for students to identify questions that may require further research and help them organize their thinking.

Reading to Answer a Question – After studying a topic for some time, ask students if they have any lingering questions (often the more students learn, the more questions they have).  Use those questions to generate even more questions and record students’ questions on a chart.  Search for sources that might lead to answers, then demonstrate how to read and paraphrase information to add to the chart next to the original questions.  After that students should be able to locate answers to the other questions and add these to their charts themselves.  Lastly students can share answers and summarize what they have learned.

Reading with a Question in Mind – Skim an article before reading and have the class discuss what it is probably about.  Using two-column notes labeled “Notes / Thinking”, jot down a question that is obvious after previewing the text.  Since simply writing down facts is not enough to build deeper understanding, it is important to merge new information with students’ thinking.  Record facts from reading in the notes column and record new ideas based on those facts in the “thinking” column (underneath the original question).  Students can jot down confusions and new questions that arise in the “thinking” column.  Teachers may want to begin by modeling this strategy whole group, then have them practice it with a partner – taking turns reading and recording.

Questions that Lead to Inferential Thinking – Since poetry often requires inferential thinking, this is a good strategy to use when reading poetry in class.  Begin by posting a poem on the SMART Board or overhead.  Read the poem aloud and record questions on board right next to it as you read.  Afterwards, review the questions and discuss possible answers.  This will prompt interpretation and analysis of the poem.  Students may ask more questions than they can answer, but the questions will lead to engaged discussions and deeper thinking.

Responding to “Beyond the Line” Questions in Literature –Open-ended questions that require students to “read between the lines” and make inferences can lead to multiple interpretations and drive thinking and discussio .  These types of questions may require students to pull ideas from several parts of the text to draw conclusions.  In order to teach students to ask these sorts of questions, teachers must begin by modeling and asking these types of questions to students.  Introduce this strategy with a text that students can relate to, yet one that is significant and meaningful.  Do think alouds and share model written responses.  Over time students will become more comfortable answering and asking these types of questions.

Using Question Webs to Expand Thinking – Teachers can emphasize important questions by constructing a question web like the one below.  This can be done on chart paper that all students can write on.  As they read and learn information that will help them answer the question, students can add the details that they find to the chart.  After reading, all students can use the chart to construct a well-informed response to the question.

Implementation

This week I was asked to develop a model lesson for a 10th grade regular level English class who was reading Edgar Allen Poe's "The Pit and the Pendulum".  The teacher told me that she had read the first few pages of the story to her class already, but they were really struggling to comprehend the text.  Honestly, I had never read this story myself, although I am familiar with some of Poe's other short stories and how challenging they can be.  I brought a textbook home over the weekend and found myself littering the pages with sticky notes filled with questions and clarifications.  This is when I realized that this would be the perfect opportunity to implement the questioning strategies from this chapter.  

When I arrived to class I explained to the students that I had found this text challenging myself and the strategy that helped me to get through it was generating questions and looking for answers as I read.  As Harvey and Goudvis suggested, I showed students my book filled with sticky notes and questions.

I explained to students that asking questions while reading helps you monitor your own comprehension and stay focused on the reading.  It also gives you a purpose to continue reading - looking for the answer to the questions you generated.  I distributed the sticky notes, then I showed the students the questions that I had asked as I read the first few pages of the story (since they had already read those pages in class, but these were questions that had not yet been answered in the text).  I had them record the questions and reminded them to look for answers as we read.  Students were eager to identify answers to those questions, then we labeled those sticky notes with an "A" and recorded the answers.  We continued reading and I encouraged them to share new questions as they occurred to them.  We continued this process until we finished the story.  At that point I asked students to bring any sticky notes with unanswered questions up to the front.  I placed these questions under the document camera and we discussed the types of questions they were (as Harvey and Goudvis suggested in the "Some Questions Are Answered and Others Are Not" section).  We found that these were either questions that required additional research or those that needed more discussion.  We also discussed how not all questions will be answered, and that is okay.  Afterwards I asked students to turn in brief reflections of how the questioning strategy helped them comprehend the story.  Most students recognized that the strategy helped them stay focused on the text and better understand the strategy.  I have included a few student reflections below.